Quality of Journalism and Media Freedom in Europe: The fsQCA Approach
Keywords:
democracy, Europe, fsQCA, Journalism, media freedomAbstract
Media freedom is often seen as the main value against which the quality and democratic success of media systems is judged. While the levels of media freedom are generally higher in Europe than in relation to the world average, there are significant variations and not all European countries measure highly on indices and scales formulated by different international organizations. With the aim of contributing to this discussion, this paper uses relevant secondary comparative quantitative data and applies the fsQCA method to analyze how the combinations of qualities of the journalism field relate to the presence and absence of high levels of media freedom among the EU countries. The results suggest that media market structure, journalistic skills, and journalistic adherence to the monitorial role of journalism constitute the “core” conditions for the implementation of media freedom.
References
Artero, J. P., Flynn, R., & Guzek, D. (2020). Media Concentration and the Rise of Multinational Companies. In K. Arnold, P. Preston, & S. Kinnebrock (Eds.), The Handbook of European Communication History (pp. 299–314). Wiley‑Blackwell.
Balčytienė, A. (2009). Market‑Led Reforms as Incentives for Media Change, Development and Diversification in the Baltic States: A Small Country Approach. International Communication Gazette, 71(1–2), 39–49. DOI: 10.1177/1748048508097929
Bhattacharyya, S., & Hodler, R. (2015). Media Freedom and Democracy in the Fight Against Corruption. European Journal of Political Economy, 39(1), 13–24. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2015.03.004
Brogi, E., Nenadić, I., & Parcu, P. L. (2021). Indices Ranking Freedom of Expression: A Comparison Between the Media Pluralism Monitor, Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House. In P. L. Parcu, & E. Brogi (Eds.), Research Handbook on EU Media Law and Policy (pp. 366–382). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Calabrese, A., & Sparks, C. (Eds.). (2003). Toward a Political Economy of Culture: Capitalism and Communication in the Twenty‑First Century. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Castro Herrero, L., Humprecht, E., Engesser, S., Brüggemann, M. L., & Büchel, F. (2017). Rethinking Hallin and Mancini Beyond the West: An Analysis of Media Systems in Central and Eastern Europe. International Journal of Communication, 11(27), 4797–4823.
Debrett, M. (2015). “Tools for Citizenship?” Public Service Media as a Site for Civic Engagement: An Australian Case Study. Television & New Media, 16(6), 557–575. DOI: 10.1177/1527476414557951
Deuze, M. (2005). What is Journalism?: Professional Identity and Ideology of Journalists Reconsidered. Journalism, 6(4), 442–464. DOI: 10.1177/1464884905056815
Deuze, M. (2007). Media Work. Polity.
Downey, J. (2020). Comparative Communication Research: Why We Really Need Some More Fuzzy Thinking. International Journal of Communication, 14(12), 5787–5798.
Downey, J., & Stanyer, J. (2010). Comparative Media Analysis: Why Some Fuzzy Thinking Might Help. Applying Fuzzy Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis to the Personalization of Mediated Political Communication. European Journal of Communication, 25(4), 331–347. DOI: 10.1177/0267323110384256
Esser, F., & Umbricht, A. (2013). Competing Models of Journalism? Political Affairs Coverage in US, British, German, Swiss, French and Italian Newspapers. Journalism, 14(8), 989–1007. DOI: 10.1177/1464884913482551
Esser, F., de Vreese, C. H., Strömbäck, J., van Aelst, P., Aalberg, T., Stanyer, J., Lengauer, G., Berganza, R., Legnante, G., Papathanassopoulos, S., Salgado, S., Sheafer, T., & Reinemann, C. (2012). Political Information Opportunities in Europe: A Longitudinal and Comparative Study of Thirteen Television Systems. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 17(3), 247–274. DOI: 10.1177/1940161212442956
European Audiovisual Observatory. (2020). Yearbook 2020 [Dataset]. https://yearbook.obs.coe.int/s/document/pan-european/2020
Eurostat. (2020). Structural Business Statistics [Dataset]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/structural-business-statistics/database
Fiss, P. C. (2011). Building Better Causal Theories: A Fuzzy Set Approach to Typologies in Organization Research. Academy of Management Journal, 54(2). DOI: 10.5465/amj.2011.60263120
Garz, M., Ots, M., & Sjøvaag, H. (2023). Political Viewpoint Diversity in the News: Market and Ownership Conditions for a Pluralistic Media System. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 0(0). DOI: 10.1177/19401612231178254
Głowacki, M. (2015). Who is a Journalist Today? Mapping Selected Dimensions for Comparative Study on Journalism. In G. Nygren, & B. Dobek‑Ostrowska (Eds.), Journalism in Change: Journalistic Culture in Poland, Russia and Sweden (pp. 63–95). Peter Lang Publishing.
Grassmuck, V., & Thomass, B. (2023). The Media in Northwestern Europe in the Last Three Decades. In S. Papathanassopoulos, & A. Miconi (Eds.), The Media Systems in Europe: Continuities and Discontinuities (pp. 69–97). Springer International Publishing.
Hackett, R. A. (2013). Press Freedom and Communication Rights: What Kind of Journalism Does Democracy Need? Pacific Journalism Review, 19(1), 13–40. DOI: 10.24135/pjr.v19i1.236
Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics. Cambridge University Press.
Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2017). Ten Years After Comparing Media Systems: What Have We Learned? Political Communication, 34(2), 155–171. DOI: 10.1080/10584609.2016.1233158
Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (Eds.). (2012). Comparing Media Systems Beyond the Western World. Cambridge University Press.
Hanitzsch, T., Hanusch, F., Ramaprasad, J., & de Beer, A. (Eds.). (2019). Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures Around the Globe. Columbia University Press.
Humprecht, E., Castro Herrero, L., Blassnig, S., Brüggemann, M., & Engesser, S. (2022). Media Systems in the Digital Age: An Empirical Comparison of 30 Countries. Journal of Communication, 72(2), 145–164. DOI: 10.1093/joc/jqab054
Karppinen, K. (2016). Beyond Positive and Negative Conceptions of Free Speech. In M. Edström, A. T. Kenyon, & E.-M. Svensson (Eds.), Blurring the Lines. Market‑Driven and Democracy‑Driven Freedom of Expression (pp. 41–50). Nordicom.
Kenny, P. D. (2020). “The Enemy of the People”: Populists and Press Freedom. Political Research Quarterly, 73(2), 261–275. DOI: 10.1177/1065912918824038
Lăzăroiu, G. (2012). Democratic Responsibilities of News Media. Economics, Management, and Financial Markets, 7(3), 145–153.
Maniou, T. A. (2023). The Dynamics of Influence on Press Freedom in Different Media Systems: A Comparative Study. Journalism Practice, 17(9), 1937–1961. DOI: 10.1080/17512786.2022.2030246
Márquez‑Ramírez, M., Mellado, C., Humanes, M. L., Amado, A., Beck, D., Davydov, S., Mick, J., Mothes, C., Olivera, D., Panagiotu, N., Roses, S., Silke, H., Sparks, C., Stępińska, A., Szabó, G., Tandoc, E., & Wang, H. (2020). Detached or Interventionist? Comparing the Performance of Watchdog Journalism in Transitional, Advanced and Non‑Democratic Countries. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25(1), 53–75. DOI: 10.1177/1940161219872155
Martin, J. D., Abbas, D., & Martins, R. J. (2016). The Validity of Global Press Ratings: Freedom House and Reporters Sans Frontières, 2002–2014. Journalism Practice, 10(1), 93–108. DOI: 10.1080/17512786.2015.1010851
Mattoni, A., & Ceccobelli, D. (2018). Comparing Hybrid Media Systems in the Digital Age: A Theoretical Framework for Analysis. European Journal of Communication 33(5), 540–557. DOI: 10.1177/0267323118784831
McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.
MEDIADELCOM. (n.d.). About the MEDIADELCOM Project. https://www.mediadelcom.eu
Mellado, C., Hellmueller, L., Márquez‑Ramírez, M., Humanes, M. L., Sparks, C., Stepinska, A., Pasti, S., Schielicke, A.-M., Tandoc, E., & Wang, H. (2017). The Hybridization of Journalistic Cultures: A Comparative Study of Journalistic Role Performance. Journal of Communication, 67(6), 944–967. DOI: 10.1111/jcom.12339
Mueller, J. (1992). Democracy and Ralph’s Pretty Good Grocery: Elections, Equality, and Minimal Human Being. American Journal of Political Science, 36(4), 983–1003. DOI: 10.2307/2111357
Napoli, P. M. (2003). Audience Economics: Media Institutions and the Audience Marketplace. Columbia University Press.
Newton, K. (2016). Public Service and Commercial Broadcasting: Impacts on Politics and Society. The Political Quarterly, 87(1), 31–38. DOI: 10.1111/1467-923X.12214
Örnebring, H., & Mellado, C. (2018). Valued Skills Among Journalists: An Exploratory Comparison of Six European Nations. Journalism, 19(4), 445–463. DOI: 10.1177/1464884916657514
Pagliarin, S., & Gerrits, L. (2020). Trajectory‑Based Qualitative Comparative Analysis: Accounting for Case‑Based Time Dynamics. Methodological Innovations, 13(3), 1–11. DOI: 10.1177/2059799120959170
Papathanassopoulos, S., & Miconi, A. (Eds.). (2023). The Media Systems in Europe: Continuities and Discontinuities. Springer International Publishing.
Pappas, I. O., & Woodside, A. G. (2021). Fuzzy‑Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA): Guidelines for Research Practice in Information Systems and Marketing. International Journal of Information Management, 58, 102310. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102310
Peruško, Z., Vozab D., & Čuvalo, A. (2013). Audience as a Source of Agency in Media Systems: Post‑Socialist Europe in a Comparative Perspective. Mediální Studia/Media Studies, 7 (2): 137–54.
Peruško, Z., Vozab, D., & Čuvalo, A. (2020). Comparing post-socialist media systems: The case of Southeast Europe. Routledge.
Popescu, M., Toka, G., Slusarec, S., & Trandafir, L. (2017). European Media Systems Survey 2017 [Dataset]. https://www.mediasystemsineurope.org
Price, L. T., Clark, M., Papadopoulou, L., & Maniou, T. A. (2023). Southern European Press Challenges in a Time of Crisis: A Cross‑National Study of Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece and Malta. Journalism, 0(0). DOI: 10.1177/14648849231213503
Ragin, C. C. (2008). Redesigning Social Inquiry: Fuzzy Sets and Beyond. University of Chicago Press.
Ragin, C. C., & Davey, S. (2023). Fuzzy‑Set/Qualitative Comparative Analysis 4.1. [Software]. https://sites.socsci.uci.edu/~cragin/fsQCA/software.shtml
Reporters Without Borders. (2020). World Press Freedom Index 2020 – List and Map [Dataset]. https://rsf.org/en/index?year=2020
Salovaara, I., & Juzefovics, J. (2012). Who Pays for Good Journalism? Accountability Journalism and Media Ownership in the Central and Eastern European Countries. Journalism Studies, 13(5–6), 763–774. DOI: 10.1080/1461670X.2012.664425
Schneider, C. Q. (2019). Two‑Step QCA Revisited: The Necessity of Context Conditions. Quality & Quantity, 53(3), 1109–1126. DOI: 10.1007/s11135-018-0805-7
Schneider, C. Q., & Wagemann, C. (2012). Set‑Theoretic Methods for the Social Sciences: A Guide to Qualitative Comparative Analysis (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Sehl, A., Fletcher, R., & Picard, R. G. (2020). Crowding Out: Is There Evidence That Public Service Media Harm Markets? A Cross‑National Comparative Analysis of Commercial Television and Online News Providers. European Journal of Communication, 35(4), 389–409. DOI: 10.1177/0267323120903688
Sjøvaag, H., Pedersen, T. A., & Owren, T. (2019). Is Public Service Broadcasting a Threat to Commercial Media? Media, Culture & Society, 41(6), 808–827. DOI: 10.1177/0163443718818354
Štětka, V., & Örnebring, H. (2013). Investigative Journalism in Central and Eastern Europe: Autonomy, Business Models, and Democratic Roles. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18(4), 413–435. DOI: 10.1177/1940161213495921
Stier, S. (2015). Democracy, Autocracy and the News: The Impact of Regime Type on Media Freedom. Democratization, 22(7), 1273–1295. DOI: 10.1080/13510347.2014.964643
Strömbäck, J. (2005). In Search of a Standard: Four Models of Democracy and Their Normative Implications for Journalism. Journalism Studies, 6(3), 331–345. DOI: 10.1080/14616700500131950
Stühmeier, T. (2019). Media Market Concentration and Pluralism. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy 28(2), 247–259. DOI: 10.1111/jems.12265
Trappel, J., & Meier, W. A. (2022). Soaring Media Ownership Concentration: Comparing the Effects of Digitalisation on Media Pluralism and Diversity. In J. Trappel, & T. Tomaz (Eds.), Success and Failure in News Media Performance: Comparative Analysis in the Media for Democracy Monitor 2021 (pp. 147–164). Nordicom.
Van Aelst, P., Strömbäck, J., Aalberg, T., Esser, F., de Vreese, C., Matthes, J., Hopmann, D., Salgado, S., Hubé, N., Stępińska, A., Papathanassopoulos, S., Berganza, R., Legnante, G., Reinemann, C., Sheafer, T., & Stanyer, J. (2017). Political Communication in a High‑Choice Media Environment: A Challenge for Democracy? Annals of the International Communication Association, 41(1), 3–27. DOI: 10.1080/23808985.2017.1288551
Van Belle, D. A. (2000). Press Freedom and Global Politics. Praeger Publishers.
Vozab, D., Trbojević, F., & Peruško, Z. (forthcoming) Finding the path to deliberative communication: The fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis approach, in Peruško, Z., Lauk, E. & Harro‑Loit, H. (Eds.) European Media Systems for Deliberative Communication. Routledge.
Willnat, L., Weaver, D. H., & Choi, J. (2013). The Global Journalist in the Twenty‑First Century: A Cross‑National Study of Journalistic Competencies. Journalism Practice, 7(2), 163–183. DOI: 10.1080/17512786.2012.753210
Worlds of Journalism Study. (2016). Data and Key Tables: WJS2 (2012–2016) [Dataset]. https://worldsofjournalism.org/data-d79/data-and-key-tables-2012-2016/
Worlds of Journalism Study. (2023). WJS3: 2021–2023. https://worldsofjournalism.org/wjs3-2021-2023/
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Polish Communication Association
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
